Organizational Behavior at My Company Essay Example for Free

Organizational Behavior at My Company Essay To understand how the concept of organizational behavior can be applied and described through the work environment of My Company, I will first explore a general definition of what Organizational Behavior is and then relate how the individual components apply. According to Stephen Robbins, author of our Organizational Behavior textbook, Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organizations effectiveness(9). The first component of this definition is to see the impact that the individuals have, followed by the impact of the groups, and then finally the impact of the structure. I will expand on each of these areas and relate them to the current practices within My Company. It is probable that the single most prevalent aspect of organizational behavior through the eyes of an employee would be the impact that they personally have on the company. What this implies, is that when I try to describe the impact individuals have to the company, it will be solely from my perspective as a non-managerial employee. Had my perspective been from that of an employee in a management-level position, it would most likely differ. From the experiences that I have had in the two and a half years that I have worked at My Company, it seems to me that individuals are encouraged to take the initiative to make their work as productive as possible. I have been part of many changes that have been initiated by non-management level employees to try and streamline and improve efficiencies within the company. This has led me to believe that one of the in-use espoused values is that of empowering all levels of employees with the ability to make changes that will directly affect their p articular areas. When evaluating the group component and how that relates to the My Company environment, I am going to make the assumption that a group is the equivalent of a department. These departmental segregations help to increase internal accountability and define what each group will be responsible for. Each group has its own independent structure and operates a little differently depending on the style of the individual manager. Many of these groups (departments) can be broken down into subgroups to further delegate  components of work. The outcome is that within each department or group there is a hierarchy where you will find different forms of leadership. Some of these subgroup leaders lead by being experts in their fields rather than having a title of being a manager. Within my group there is a distinct leader that I work for. I have found that if I am struggling with a project or if I cannot define the scope of a job that I am working on often times I can rely on help from the leader of my group to help achieve the desired results. If for some reason components (individuals) within my subgroup started to perform poorly, the outcome could have serious consequences to the productivity of our entire department. Conversely, if we were able to drastically improve performance metrics for our areas of responsibility, we would then be able to offset some work from other areas within the group. This interdependence of the subgroups has helped our group to have more control of the aspects that will impact how productively the company will continue to be going forward. Through the process of defining the groups within My Company, I have made reference to the internal group structure. Instead of rehashing this same information and tying it back to the structural component mentioned in the definition of organizational behavior, I am going to relate how my manager is able to structure her team to be as effective and productive as possible. Looking through the four essential management functions (Robbins 5) defined in our reading material, (planning, organizing, leading and controlling) I am able to see how my manager struggles to constantly apply these ideas in her day to day responsibilities. Our group organizes weekly meetings where we try to plan what tasks we would like to undertake in the near future. My manager is responsible for keeping these meetings in focus so that overall group objectives are met. Through controlling and delegating within these meetings, she has shown the ability to lead our group and utilize different strengths of individuals to maximize our effectiveness. Being able to take more of an observational role in this situation has helped me to understand the different idiosyncrasies that exist within our company and department. By identifying these quirks I feel that I am able to better understand how many of the different internal components and people must work together in order to achieve desired results. This has helped me to recognize, at least  at the group level, how one can utilize many of the resources to maximize efficiencies within My Company. Works Cited Robbins, Stephen. Organizational Behavior. New Jersey: Pearson, 2001.

Otherness and Alienation in Joyce Essay Example for Free

Otherness and Alienation in Joyce Essay The striking feature of James Joyce’s hero in A Portrait of an Artist as a young Man and Dubliners is that of a detached observer of his fellow-beings and environment: home, religion and country. From a normal boy of Dublin he gradually emerges to be an artist of high sensibility who shuns the influences of social and religious order. The esthetic power of re-creating the world makes Stephen reject the order of the Jesuits. In the stories as well as the novel, the hero chooses the role of an artist in exile. The lack of social value framework makes the artist feel he has no function to play; he must practice his part in silence and in exile. Joyce raises the question of proper aesthetic attitude and develops art from egocentric lyrical to dramatic approach. He has portrayed human activities with complete aloofness, using dramatic method. His fictions have epiphany rather than the conventional suspense, well-contrived plot and action. James Joyce shows the growth of a highly sensitive artistic mind in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in an atmosphere dominated by conservative religion. His hero as a detached observer is very similar to Albert Camus’ protagonist in The Outsider, except for the fact that Stephen begins with religious faith and ends with his esthetics which is definitely a positive feature. From a normal boy of Dublin he gradually emerges to be an artist of high sensibility who shuns the influences of social and religious order. The esthetic power of re-creating the world makes Stephen reject the order of the Jesuits. In the stories as well as the novel, the hero chooses the role of an artist in exile. The lack of social value framework makes the artist feel he has no function to play; he must practice his part in silence and in exile. Joyce raises the question of proper esthetic attitude and develops art from egocentric lyrical to dramatic approach. He has portrayed human activities with complete aloofness, using dramatic method. His fictions have epiphany rather than the conventional suspense, well-contrived plot and action. Having been dissatisfied with the religious doctrines as inadequate, he goes on develop his esthetics which is, according to David Daiches : To look at the world with the eye of the artist who combines the naked sensibility and the pure aesthetic eye and be satisfied with the artist’s god-like power to re-create the world with words. It is this discovery that prompts Stephen’s rejection to join the order of the Jesuits. (Daiches. 199) The drab surroundings of Dublin and his sharp intelligence and excessive sensibility turn every experience into a conflict in Stephen’s soul – the religious versus the pagan, the struggle of the flesh versus the spirit. Joyce said, ‘I call the series Dubliners to betray the soul of that hemiplegia or paralysis which many consider a city. ’ (Beja. 16) The boy narrator of â€Å"Araby† finds the Dublin environment pretty dull (described in the first paragraph) and he tries to forget it by falling in love with his friend Mangan’s sister. He manages to suppress his obsession with the girl, but fails miserably to buy her a gift from the fair because of the insensibilities of the salespersons. At the end he is left with an excruciating depression which culminates in an epiphany: ‘Gazing up into the darkness I saw myself as creature driven and derided by vanity; and my eyes burned with anguish and anger. ’(Dubliners. 33) It is the realization of the aloof artist who is disillusioned with the ways of the world. The insensitive behavior of the salespersons makes him disenchanted about the world. Another hero in â€Å"An Encounter† shows his isolation when he confesses that he has no sweethearts while Mahony and his friends have plenty. ‘I answered that I had none. He did not believe me and said he was sure I must have one. I was silent. ’ (Dubliners. 23) Stephen’s experience at the Jesuit school is a perpetual conflict with the environment as is evident:

Psychology Essays Down Syndrome Child and AAC

Psychology Essays Down Syndrome Child and AAC Down Syndrome Child and (AAC) Augmentative or Alternative Communication System Doesthe Down syndrome child, acquiring the ability to communicate usingaugmentative or alternative communication (AAC) System, follow a similardevelopment path as that of typical language development? The Down syndrome child, bydefinition, is different from others. Therefore, more than likely he or shewill experience some level of mental retardation and physical disability.Physical disability can include health, immunity, and physical problems whichaffect the sight, the hearing and speech. This would imply that most childrenborn with Down syndrome have limited intelligence, limited physical ability,and, similar to the deaf child, because of hearing deficits, will have delaysin language development. Language development and auditory function have beenlinked in numerous studies. Where in the deaf child intellectual function isnot an issue, it should be noted that in most deaf individuals, languageimpairment continues throughout life although the ability to communicate can beaugmented through other means such as hearing aids, sign language, and thelike. Language delay would beprognosticated in intellectually and/or auditorily impaired children frombirth. In the child with Down syndrome, given the additional physical problemsincluding impaired motor skills affecting articulation, a language delay, to agreater extent, would be both implied and expected. The question as to whether,with the use of augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) the child thenfollows the path of typical language development, albeit retarded or delayed. In the paper entitled Languageand Communication Characteristics of Children with Down Syndrome, (Miller,J in Pueschel. S.m. et al., p. 224) a collaboration of views that include thedelay which involves the necessity in language for cognitive development, anddeficit which involves the additional characteristics needed for languagedevelopment, is needed. That collaboration with the inclusion of otherenvironmental factors that can affect verbal skills and language comprehension.In fact, this study places more emphasis on the environmental factors thaneither delay or enhance language development in the delayed or deficit child. Given that all factors areinterchangeable in studies, i.e. level of deficiency or delay and environmentaland social factors, it can also be surmised that a child with variations ofthese combinations, would find his/her world enhanced with the ability tocommunicate. Studies using AAC with Down syndrome children generally speakingshow better communication skills which would lead to better environmentalfactors based on at least less frustration in social situations. Foreman and Crews (1998, p. 1)define AAC as to commonly refer to mechanical and electronic systems usedwith cerebral palsy and physical disability but include sign language as usedwith the deaf. This article also refers to the language system developed byMargaret Walker Makaton. The system was developed as a support tocommunication development in adults. This method, now used in over 40countries, combines the use of signing and speaking. Also mentioned in thisarticle is the use of picture communication that requires no reading skills butrather use pictographs to convey information. Both methods have been shown to havepositive results for the child along with concerns of stigma and difficultlyfor either the child or the family to learn the AAC. While these concerns havebeen voiced, on the other hand, better communication skills have cut downsignificantly on behavioral outbursts due to the inability to communicate. The studies also indicate thatlearning basic signs for no, help and the like empower the child. Thisempowerment would imply enhanced environmental factors as a consequent tobetter social skills. But further, as Foreman and Crews study shows (1998, p.6): The ability to name objects is of greatuse to young children with a limited capacity to communicate (Grove Walker, 1990). Most of the frustration experience by young children withcommunication difficulties is limited by the ability to name a desired toy,food or activity. While this study taughtchildren naming skills through four methods fv communication, it concludes thatthe multimodal method of instruction is an effective way of encouragingchildren with Down syndrome (1998, p. 7) and signing may carry most weightamongst the various modalities. Another point to be discussedis to the question as to whether children with Down syndrome have a pattern oflanguage development that is distinct or different from the typical. Studiesconducted by Harris (1983, pp. 153ff) and Coggins (1979, pp166ff) determinedthat children approximately three years old or younger, whether normal or Downsyndrome develop approximately the same. It is with older children where normalchildren acquire more advanced language skills (Coggins, 1979). Harris studysuggested that were different language strategies were used both groups, normaland Down, progressed in age. Miller points out that apreference for gestural expression over verbal expression among children withDown syndrome by educators, parents, and speech-language pathologists (Miller,p. 6) has been noted. This makes sense, as confirmed by many researchers;intelligibility of speech is a major factor in Down syndrome. This inability toproduce intelligible speech is attributable to physical problems mentionedabove, to include the muscular structure of the jaw, and often-reported oversizedtongue. This would go along with where studies indicate the normal child andthe Down syndrome child split from each other in language development. Themuscular development coupled with normally developing cognitive skills allowthe normal child to interact and communicate by the age of 5 or 6 whereas Downsyndrome children remain unintelligible. Additional to physicaldisability is the deficit in understanding concepts and complex ideas. AsMiller points out, ideas relating to time and space, relationships, causality(Miller, p. 8) are difficult to impossible for the child with Down syndrome tounderstand. It is in this area that the factors involving the physical,cognitive and environment can be linked to where the Down syndrome childsdevelopment and language skills reach a ceiling. From research conducted, itcan be safely assumed that children with Down syndrome stop developing aroundthe age normal children are able to understand the above-mentioned ideas andconcepts. This inability, retarding cognition, will then as a consequenceretard ability to communicate at a complex level of thinking as do normallydeveloping children and adults. This would indicate that, despite the currentAAC available, at some point language development would not continue on thesame path as in the typical. An important variable however, is environment, inthe determination of just how far this child can develop. Since gesture was noted to bepreferred in this group, studies noted in the article by John Clibbens, pointsto arguments such as those of Remington and Clark (1996) that signingfacilitates interactions and thus speech development and those carried out byMiller (1992) and Launonen (1996) both of which point to advantages in signingand greater advancement in vocabulary among subjects during an importantdevelopmental period (Clibbens, p. 2). Launonens follow up study in 1998found that there was still significant difference in social and linguisticskills between the two groups. Both of these authors emphasize signing asbeneficial both in the short and long term. Interesting to point out thatstrategies used by deaf mothers were looked at for research purposes. Clibbens,Powell and Grove (1997) note that signing is preferred as it is a naturallanguage system that does not require special equipment among other reasons. One of the major argumentsagainst signing is that it does not encourage children to speak. Yet othershave noted that as the child grows (to some extent as does the normal child)that speech overtakes use of gesture to communicate. It would seem that empowermentis an important factor in all people and this would not exclude the child withDown syndrome. Empowerment implies self-esteem. This comes out of socialinteraction that has positive feedback. When a child is able to find a way tobetter communicate with his environment and have his needs met, he is morelikely to want to learn, on some level, and to do more of the same. The generalfeedback in studies reviewed show that use of AA is generally positive for allparticipants. Empowerment and self-esteem, has been shown in studires of allsorts to enhance the life generally and leads to success in relationships.Success in relationship again, has been shown in numerous studies to be as theresult of good ommunication. Communication, as proven by these studies iseffective both verbally and nonverbally as through signing with thispopulation. There have been many thingssaid about the Down syndrome child that have not been included in studies.These things could be considered beyond the typical. Down syndrome childrenhave been noted to be openly loving and naively devoted because of theirchildlike nature. More and more opportunities are opening up for these childrento include roles on television. More exposure with less stigmatism, furtherempower the Down syndrome child as well as others with physical, mental andcognitive disiabilties. Events such as the Special Olympics, develop thephysical where before these chidren were coddled and hidden. This furthers theempowerment and self-esteem of the Down syndrome individual and encourages himor her to further develop language skills. Any method that furthers thechances of a disabled child such as one with Down syndrom to benefit from inclusionin events and circles of others in society brings benefit and furtherdevelopment in all areas of growth. AAC includes a growing number of methodswhereby the ability to communicate can be enhanced. Thus, what was previouislydescribed as impossible or atypical for a child born with Down syndrome nolonger applies. In conclusion, the child whohas learned one mode or a combination of modes of augmentative or alternativecommunication (AAC) System, follow a similar development path as that oftypical language development to a point. The factors that must be considered inevaluating this question are cognitive in that the intellectual ability toconprehend complex ideas will be retarded or impaired and reach a ceiling.Compared to the norm, where, at a similar developmental point, the typicalprogresses. Further, beyond the cognitiveand intellectual factors, there are the physical factors that impedeintelligibility. This is based on physical deformity and which contribute todelays which further impede ability to communicate. This separates languageability related to muscle development and jaw structure from the typical at thephysical level. AAC techniques cannot yetbring language development to the level of the typical or the norm, yet theycan increase vocabulary, extend communication skills, beyond what is now thenorm for the Down syndrome child. This enhancement helps the child developother social skills that bring the environment closer to him or her and others, While researchers in AAC techniquesrealize the factors that inhibit or enhance their studies involve the type ofmodality or combination thereof along with social factors level of deficiency,and the environmental factors that contribute greatly to the better functioningof children with Down syndrome. Because the stigma of retardation anddisability has lessened over the years, more opportunities are available toenhance learning and social skills. Sports events such as the above-mentionedSpecial Olympics allow a Down syndrome child to experience physical strengthand the sense of competition which build on self-esteem and emotional balance.More and more acceptance of such children has come about in the communityleading to support groups, respite, and more understanding of what is availableand what works. The capacity and capability ofthese children, studies and personal experience show, has been underrated. Acouple of generations ago, these children were not expected to survivechildhood. While they have shown mental deficiencies, their emotional abilitiesto give and receive are not deficient by the reports of many. More and more,these children are participating in regular schools, grow up to do work thathas meaning to them and are able to maintain independent living skills. Manyare developing talents such as singing, acting, music which also can beconsidered skill enhancing providing further means of communication andlanguage development. The answer is to the question:Does the Down Syndrome child, acquiring the ability to communicate usingaugmentative or alternative communication (AAC) System, follow a similardevelopment path as that of typical language development, is yes and no. Nobecause the child born with Down syndrome will develop at all levels atypicallyand this would include language development. However, as stated below: Providing the best strategies for communication for a child with anintellectual disability is an enormously complex task. Augmentative proceduresare not the complete solution to the communication problems of these children.However, by a slow process of trial and assessment of these procedures, smallgains can be achieved in the eventual construction of a system that allowschildren to communicate more effectively. The practical benefits of theseprocedures for children with Down syndrome (and all children with intellectualdisabilities) are of great importance to the improvement of their lifeopportunities. (Foreman, p. 8) Improvement of live andopportunity has been the result of, at least in part, augmentative procedures. References Coggins. T. E. (1979). Relational meaning encoded in thetwo-word utterances of stage 1 Downs syndrome children. Journal of Speechand Hearing Research, 22, 166-178. Clibbens, J. (2001). Signing and lexical development inchildren with Down syndrome. Down Syndrome Research and Practice 7(3),101-105. Clibbens, J. Powell, G.G. Grove, N. (1997). Manualsigning and AAC Issues for research and practice. Communication Matters,11 (2), 17-18. Foreman, P., Crews, G. (1998). Using augmentativecommunication with infants and young children with Down syndrome. Down SyndromeResearch and Practice Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 16-25. NSW, Australia, University ofNewcastle. Harris, J. (1983). What does mean length of utterance mean?Evidence from a comparative study of normal and Downs syndrome Children. BritishJournal of Disorders of communication, 18, 153-169. Launonen, K. (1996). Enhancing communication skills ofchildren with Down syndrome: Early use of manual signs. In S. von Tetzchner M. H. Jensen (Eds.), Augmentative and Alternative Communication:European Perspectives. London: Wherr. Launonen, K. (1998). Early manual sign intervention:Eight-year follow up of children with Down syndrome. In Proceedings of theISAAC 98 Conference. Dublin ISAAC/Ashfield Publications. Miller, J.F. (1992). Development of speech and language inchildren with Down syndrome. In I.T. Lott E.E. McCoy (Eds.) DownSyndrome: Advances in medical care. Chichester: Wiley. Pueschel, Siegfried M., Tingey, Carol, Rynders, J. E.,Crocker, A. C. Crutcher, D. M. (Eds.) (1987). New perspectives on Downsyndrome. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. ISBN 0933716699Congresses Chapter 9, 233-62.

Charlotte Haldanes The Last Great Empress of China :: Chinese History Essays

Charlotte Haldane's The Last Great Empress of China â€Å"Never again allow any women to hold supreme power in the state. It is against the house-law of our Dynasty, and should be strictly forbidden. Be careful not to permit eunuchs to meddle in Government matters. The Ming Dynasty was brought to ruin by eunuchs, and its fate should be a warning to my people†(Haldane 259). These were the final words of the last great empress of China, Tzu Hsi. In a sense this statement was ironic. For almost 50 years this one woman ruled China with a graceful but iron fist. The Last Great Empress of China, written by Charlotte Haldane, is the story of how Tzu Hsi (1861-1908, rose to power and managed to keep it. Known by several names through out the course of her life, Tzu Hsi was intelligent, beautiful, and had a voice that could charm anyone. Chosen as an Imperial Concubine in the third class, Yehonala (as she was known at the time) took great care to win the favor of the current Empress Dowager. Her next step was to win the favor of the young Emperor Hsien Feng, which she accomplished with the help of the Chief Eunuch, who she had also won over. In her quest for ultimate power the luckiest event that befell her was the birth of her son. Because the Empress Consort Sakota failed to produce an heir, Yenonala’s son was to become the heir apparent, raising her to the position of first rank concubine. Throughout the course of her life, Tzu Hsi played her cards well, continuously increasing her power. Tzu Hsi’s thirst for power caused her to be the center of several scandals over the course of her reign. It is said that she arranged the death of the Empress Consort Sakota (also known as the Tzu An) and two influential concubines whom she deemed a threat to her authority. Not being able to accomplish these deaths on her own, Tzu Hsi turned to those closest to her, the royal eunuchs. Though the eunuchs as a rule were not to speak unless spoken to first, the Chief Eunuch, whoever he was at the time, became her closest confidant.

Shoplifting: A Hard Habit to Break Essay example -- Dialogue Essays

Shoplifting: A Hard Habit to Break Erik* walks up to me outside of the Diesel store on Newbury Street. â€Å"I needed new jeans,† he said. A little further away from the store he shows me the pants that cost about $150 in he store, he shoplifted or as he says "scooped" two pairs. Inside the bag with the pants are a few shirts and the shoes he is wearing he tells me he switched with shoes he had on. Erik is 22, he does it because he says he is feeding an addiction. His name has been changed for anonymity. â€Å"No drugs, I don’t drink, I’m in shape, but every day if I come home after work without something I have to go back out and get it,† he said. â€Å"I take things because I can’t stop,† he says. â€Å"A lot of it I end up giving away because I move a lot and I don’t need it.† Erik has lived in Boston, Washington, California, Georgia, and Florida in the last year. He’s either touring with bands or just traveling. â€Å"Right now I have a shopping list for over $300 in Banana Republic,† said Erik. â€Å"I get stuff for other people and they give me half of what it costs, I really don’t even need a real job.† According to the National Retail Security Survey and reported on retailindustry.com â€Å"total inventory shrinkage cost U.S. retailers $32.3 billion last year, up from $29 billion the year before.† $10 billion of this was attributed to shoplifting. â€Å"Most of my friends shoplift or at least they have in the past,† said Erik. â€Å"Some people ‘work for eBay’, they steal expensive things that are really random from a lot of stores. Like my friend Matt takes these boxes of drawing pens that are worth either $60 or $200 and sold them on eBay. Almost every state he’s lived in has made the transition of having them out in normal art stores to underneath Ple... ...op when she wants to. Erik has not been caught, but he knows the consequences of shoplifting. â€Å"You can go to jail for a long time if they want to put you away that bad, it’s also a federal offense so every time I’d apply for a job I’d have to say what I did.† Erik already has many misdemeanor charges in various states due to fighting. â€Å"I want to stop [shoplifting] but I can’t, most people don’t though, want to stop.† Although Jason Lane said most of the thefts are found out later on surveillance cameras retailindustry.com quotes Hayes, president of Loss Prevention Specialists, as saying that â€Å"technology is critical to maintaining low loss levels.† In their article he said, â€Å"Because shoplifters are largely targeting small, highly desirable merchandise, these retailers have increasingly turned to electronic article surveillance devices to protect their merchandise.†

Humes Wide Construal of the Virtues Essay -- Hume Virtues Virtue Phil

Hume's Wide Construal of the Virtues ABSTRACT: The term "virtue" has traditionally been used to designate morally good character traits such as benevolence, charity, honesty, wisdom, and honor. Although ethicists do not commonly offer a definitive list of virtues, the number of virtues discussed is often short and their moral significance is clear. Hume's analysis of the virtues departs from this tradition both in terms of the quantity of virtues discussed and their obvious moral significance. A conservative estimate of the various virtues Hume refers to in his moral writings would put the number at around seventy, with the more untraditional ones including wit, good manners, and dialog. Unsurprisingly, Hume's critics have attacked him for making nonsense of the concept of virtue by construing it so widely. Hume was aware that his broad understanding of virtue was controversial and he offered several defenses for it. After presenting the neglected attacks of his contemporaries along with Hume's response, I argue that a problem remains: by failing to distinguish between degrees of virtue, Hume also fails to distinguish between degrees of vice. But, some vices (e.g., malevolence) clearly deserve punishment whereas other alleged vices (e.g., uncleanliness) clearly do not. Thus, for adequate retribution, a distinction is needed between important and less important virtues and vices. I conclude that Hume could have used his own account of instinctive vengeance as a natural indicator for distinguishing between important and unimportant vices. The term "virtue" has traditionally been used to designate morally good character traits such as benevolence, charity, honesty, wisdom, and honor. Although ethicists, past and present, do ... ...f John Leland's A view of the principal deistical writers..., in the Monthly Review, 1757, Vol. 14, pp. 465-477, and in the Critical Review, 1756, Vol. 1, pp. 193-208. (12) James Beattie, Essay on the nature and immutability of truth in opposition to sophistry and scepticism. 1770, Edinburgh, A. Kincaid and J. Bell, pp. 421-448. (13) "Character of the Works of David Hume Esq," in The Weekly Magazine or Edinburgh Amusement, 1773, Vol. 22, pp. 233-234. (14) "Tobias Simple," "Strictures on the account of the life and writings of David Hume," in Weekly Magazine, or Edinburgh Review, 1777, Vol. 38, pp. 289-292. (15) C. L. Stevenson, Ethics and Language, (New Haven: 1944), pp. 34-35. (16) Pall S. Ardal, Passion and Value, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1966), pp. 160-161. (17) J. L. Mackie, Hume's Moral Theory, (London: Routledge, 1980), p. 129.

The Italian Renaissance Art

The Italian Renaissance was one of the most prolific periods in the history of art, with large numbers of exceptional artists to be found in painting, sculpture, and architecture. These leaders included Masaccio in painting, Brunelleschi in architecture, and Donatello in sculpture. Renaissance Art is divided into two main periods. The first period is known as Early Renaissance which took place in the fifteenth century during the Golden Age of Florence. This time included largess buildings, sculptures, and paintings, all of which questioned the rules of art. The next period is known as the High Renaissance, which was created mostly in the sixteenth century as it essentially built up upon and mastered the artwork created in the previous era. Art of this time period was marked by greater realism and the natural depiction of the human form. Humanism played a major part in Renaissance art as individualism that humanism cultivated led to a greater attention to the power of the individual. The Baptistry in Florence is known as the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance. During this rebirth of culture, a banking system was invented in Florence, largely thanks to the wealthy Medici family. The Baptistry is an octagonal dome with a Florentine Romanesque style. The Baptistery is renowned for its three sets of artistically important bronze doors with relief sculptures. Michelangelo called the doors on the eastern side, â€Å"The Gates of Paradise. † The Golden Age of Florence is known as The Early Renaissance with considerable artistic achievements. Sculpture was very important during this time, and Donatello’s statues David and Gattamelata. Donatello's bronze statue of David is notable as it is the first unsupported standing work in bronze cast during the Renaissance period. It depicts the young David with an enigmatic smile, posed with his foot on Goliath's severed head just after killing the giant. Most scholars assume the statue was commissioned by the Medici Family around 1440. Gattemelata by Donatello depicts the realism, humanism, and individualism of the Renaissance. Bronze like Donatello’s David, this statue is the first Renaissance equestrian statue and it served as a model for later sculptures honoring military heroes. Renaissance painting began with The Holy Trinity by Masaccio. This painting is also the first to invent perspective, in which a two-dimensional image has the appearance of being three-dimensional with the help of a barrel-vaulted chamber. This piece shows the intimacy of religion during this time as God is descending Jesus from the cross. Madonna and Child, likely the most popular painting in Italy during its time, further shows how religion is a central theme in the Renaissance. The most well known Renaissance painting today, however, is the Birth of Venus by Botticelli. It depicts the goddess Venus, having emerged from the sea as a full grown woman, arriving at the sea-shore. Botticelli rarely gave weight and volume to his figures and rarely used a deep perspective space. In this painting, Venus' body is anatomically questionable, with elongated neck and torso. Venus is an Italian Renaissance ideal as she is blonde, pale-skinned, and voluptuous. High Renaissance Artwork is dominated by Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo is famous for mostly paintings, while Michelangelo worked in a wider range of mediums which included sculptures and frescos. Leonardo created Madonna on the Rocks, which shows his interest in geology. One of his better-known paintings is The Last Supper. It represents the scene of The Last Supper from the final days of Jesus as narrated in the Gospel of John 13:21, when Jesus announces that one of his Twelve Apostles would betray him. The Mona Lisa, another one of da Vinci’s masterpieces, encompasses the Italian Renaissance. The painting is a wedding portrait that depicts a seated woman whose facial expression is frequently described as enigmatic. The ambiguity of the woman’s expression, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusion were new qualities that make the work fascinating. The image is so widely recognized, caricatured, and sought out by its visitors that it is considered the most famous painting in the world. Donato Bramante also created fine work during the High Renaissance, especially in architecture. In the year 1502 in Rome, Bramante build a church called Tempietto. Originally patronized by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, the Tempietto marks the traditional location of St. Peter's crucifixion where he was crucified upside down. Inside, Michelangelo supplied some of the figure drawings, which further shows his significant role in the Renaissance. Michelangelo, unlike the painter da Vinci, created both paintings and statues. Pardon the pun; he truly was a Renaissance Man as he mastered a bevy of skills. He only piece Michelangelo ever signed was his Pieta. The Pieta, done in 1499, is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture that is housed in St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. It is the first of a number of works of the same theme by the artist. This famous marble sculpture depicts the body of Jesus on the lap of his mother Mary after the Crucifixion. It is an important work as it balances the Renaissance ideals of classical beauty with naturalism. The statue is one of the most highly finished works by Michelangelo, and may be one of his favorites as it is the only one he signed. Another one of Michelangelo’s well-known statues is David. Michelangelo breaks away from the traditional way of representing David. He does not present us with the winner, like with the giant's head at his feet and the powerful sword in his hand. Rather, he portrays the youth as tense as he gathers power immediately preceding the battle. Unlike Donatello’s depiction of the biblical hero David, some say Michelangelo’s version does not say much about the legend. Rather, Michelangelo seems to be proving to the population that he can create and master a Greek Style statue. He seems to perfect the traditional contrapposto knee flexion, as many Greek heroes are represented. We can see further Greek elements, as David is a standing male who is nude. Michelangelo continues the High Renaissance with his Statue of Moses. Moses is depicted with horns, which may strike up a red flag to some viewers. However, before the bible was translated, horns were the symbol for halos. This is a significant theme of the wisdom of the Enlightenment. This marble sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by Pope Julius II for his tomb as Moses is holding the Ten Commandments under his arm. Oil paints were perfected in the Renaissance and allowed much advancement in many mediums, especially in frescos. Michelangelo’s first famous painting was likely his Lybian Sibyl from 1510 located on the Sistine Chapel. In this work, colors start to become much brighter than previously used, which gave the chapel a heavenly feel. His paintings are so detailed and bold that they actually look as if they were statues. The serpentine figure presents itself with a snake-like twist. Michelangelo showed his painting talents in a fresco in the Sistine Chapel known as the Creation of Adam. Michelangelo tries to tell a story on the entire ceiling of the church and does so with marvelous creations. In fact, this ceiling took a total of four years to created, in which Michelangelo worked on it every day. However, it ought to be noted that looking up at a ceiling for an extensive period of time can be very bothersome, so viewers sometimes lay on their backs to attempt to understand and appreciate the beauty of the frescos. This work specifically was the most condemned work of art after the Council of Trent because of all of the nude figures Michelangelo depicted. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo is the altarpiece at The Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo began working on it three decades after having finished the ceiling of the chapel. The work is massive and spans the entire wall behind the altar and it is a depiction of the second coming of Christ and the apocalypse. The souls of humans rise and descend to their fates, as judged by Christ surrounded by his saints. Shortly after the creation of this painting, the Jesuits began to spread. Michelangelo was accused of immorality and intolerable obscenity, having depicted naked figures, with genitals in evidence, inside the most important church of Christianity. The Fig-Leaf Campaign began to protest and give sensors to such art. Michelangelo does a self-portrait depicting himself as St. Bartholomew after he had been skinned alive. This is reflective of the feelings of contempt Michelangelo had for being commissioned to paint The Last Judgment. Michelangelo took his talents to architecture in the final stages of his career. He created the Dome of St.  Peter’s Basilica. This is the highest dome in the world, and is also the third widest. This was created with the intention of looking very classical. One of Michelangelo’s motifs is his double columns along the outside of the dome for decoration. Uniquely, Michelangelo's dome is not a hemisphere, but a parabola: it has a vertical thrust, which is made more emphatic by the bold ribbing that springs from the paired Corinthian columns, which appear to be part of the drum, but which stand away from it like buttresses, to absorb the outward thrust of the dome's weight. It would not do the Italian Renaissance justice to leave out Rafael’s masterpiece The School of Athens, created in 1510. This painting represents the philosophical inquiry of classical times. Ancient Greek architecture and clothing can be seen in the painting It was painted as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate with frescoes the rooms in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican, so today it is a nice fresco on the wall of the Pope’s office. The picture has long been seen as Raphael's masterpiece and the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the High Renaissance.